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UNIVERSITY     OF     ILLINOIS     BULLETIN 

Issued  Weekly 
Vol.  XXIII  March  29,  1926  No.  30 

[Entered  as  second-class  matter  December  11,  1912,  at  the  post  office  at  Urbana,  Illinois,  under  the 
Act  of  August  24,  1912.  Acceptance  for  mailing  at  the  special  rate  of  postage  provided  for  in 
section    1103,  Act  of  October  3,    1917,  authorized  July  31,    1918.] 


EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH  CIRCULAR  NO.  43 


BUREAU  OF  EDUCATIONAL  RESEARCH 
COLLEGE  OF  EDUCATION 


PROJECTS  AND  THE  PROJECT 
METHOD 


By 


Walter  S.  Monroe 
Director,  Bureau  of  Educational  Research 


PR  G 


UWVtKtMTY  Of  H. 


PUBLISHED  BY  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  ILLINOIS 
URBANA 


3  7o 

PROJECTS  AND  THE  PROJECT  METHOD 

A  definition  of  the  term  "project."  Although  the  term  "project" 
only  recently  has  become  widely  used  In  educational  literature,  it  is  not 
a  new  word.  For  many  years  it  has  been  used  by  the  United  States 
Department  of  Agriculture  to  mean  "carefully  planned  investigations 
in  agricultural  science  covering  a  considerable  period  of  time."  Steven- 
son1 states  that  the  first  use  of  "project"  as  a  name  for  an  instructional 
procedure  was  by  R.  W.  Stimson  who  employed  the  phrase  "home 
project"  about  1908  to  designate  a  type  of  vocational  agricultural  edu- 
cation. Within  a  few  years  the  term  "project"  began  to  be  used  by 
teachers  of  manual  arts  and  the  sciences  to  designate  a  type  of  instruc- 
tional procedure,  and  now  it  is  employed  by  teachers  in  other  fields. 

A  variety  of  definitions  have  been  proposed  for  "project"  as  the 
term  is  now  used  but  the  one  formulated  by  Kilpatrick2  appears  to  be 
most  helpful.  He  defines  a  project  to  be  "any  unit  of  purposeful  experi- 
ence, any  instance  of  purposeful  activity  where  the  dominating  purpose, 
as  an  inner  urge,  (1)  fixes  the  aim  of  the  action,  (2)  guides  its  process, 
and  (3)  furnishes  its  drive,  its  inner  motivation."  A  somewhat  different 
definition  is  given  by  Stevenson3  who  states  that  "a  project  is  a  prob- 
lematic act  carried  to  completion  in  its  natural  setting."  This  definition 
is  not  necessarily  incompatible  with  that  given  by  Kilpatrick  but  it 
emphasizes  different  phases.  The  requirement  that  the  act  be  "carried 
to  completion"  is  implied  only  very  indirectly,  if  at  all,  in  Kilpatrick's 
statement. 

A  concept  of  learning  and  teaching.  In  order  to  comprehend  a 
formal  definition  of  a  project,  it  is  necessary  to  have  in  mind  certain 
aspects  of  the  processes  of  learning  and  teaching.  Learning  is  a  process 
of  activity;  what  one  learns  is  the  product  or  outcome  of  his  own  activ- 
ity, physical,  intellectual  and  emotional.  The  activity  of  another  person 
contributes  to  one's  learning  only  as  it  affects  his  activity.  Thus  the 
teacher's  task  is,  first,  to  stimulate  his  pupils  to  engage  in  activities  that 
will  be  highly  productive  of  the  specific  habits,  knowledge  and  general 


'Stevenson,  J.  A.  The  Project  Method  of  Teaching.  New  York:  The  Macmillan 
Company,  1921,  p.  40. 

2Kilpatrick,  W.  H.  "Dangers  and  difficulties  of  the  project  method  and  how  to 
overcome  them — a  symposium,"  Teachers  College  Record,  22:283,  September,  1921. 

3Stevenson,  J.  A.  Op.  cit.,  p.  43. 

[3] 


patterns  of  conduct4  which  he  desires  to  engender  and,  second,  to  direct 
them  as  they  endeavor  to  participate  in  these  activities  so  that  there 
will  be  a  minimum  of  wasted  effort. 

The  preceding  paragraph  epitomizes  a  concept  of  learning  and 
teaching  which  is  generally  accepted  in  theory  even  though  not  infre- 
quently violated  in  practice.  This  concept  is  opposed  to  the  blank  tablet 
theory  of  the  educational  process  in  which  the  teacher  was  assumed  to 
"communicate"  or  "transfer"  ideas,  principles  and  so  forth  to  the  pupil 
who  in  this  way  was  educated  by  the  acts  of  the  teacher.  Although  the 
blank  tablet  theory  of  learning  was  discredited  years  ago  and  the  prin- 
ciple that  one  learns  only  as  the  result  of  his  own  activity  is  generally 
accepted,  our  pedagogical  vocabulary  includes  many  words  and  phrases 
whose  meaning  retains  traces  of  the  concept  of  learning  as  a  passive 
process  in  which  the  teacher  rather  than  the  pupil  is  the  active  agent. 
It  is  not  unusual  to  read  that  a  teacher  "imparts"  knowledge  and  is 
responsible  for  "making  his  subject  interesting,"  that  he  is  expected  to 
"explain"  or  "demonstrate,"  that  his  function  is  to  "communicate"  what 
he  knows  to  his  students,  that  the  "telling  method"  is  appropriate  on 
certain  occasions,  that  the  teacher  must  "prepare"  his  students  for  a 
new  topic  and  then  conform  to  certain  principles  in  "presenting"  it. 
Even  such  terms  as  subject-matter,  content,  textbook,  and  curriculum 
are  frequently  used  in  a  way  which  implies  that  learning  is  at  best  a 
process  of  passive  absorption. 

It  is,  of  course,  improbable  that  any  person  who  has  studied  modern 
psychology  would  agree  with  these  implications  if  asked  explicitly  con- 
cerning them,  but  contact  with  students  in  education  courses  and  with 
teachers  has  convinced  the  writer  that  the  blank  tablet  theory  of  learn- 
ing still  functions  in  the  thinking  of  many  persons  and  in  much  of  our 
educational  practice.  This  condition  appears  to  be  due  in  part,  perhaps 
largely,  to  the  use  of  a  number  of  words  and  phrases  which  tend  to 
imply  that  learning  is  a  relatively  passive  process,  the  teacher  being 
the  active  agent. 

Conditions  for  efficient  educative  activity.  Learning  is  an  active 
process  but  it  does  not  follow  that  all  activity  is  equally  educative.  In 
the  first  place,  if  certain  controls  of  conduct  are  to  be  acquired,  the 
learner  must  engage  in  certain  activities.  Skill  in  handwriting  is  not 
attained  by  practicing  on  a  typewriter;  mastery  of  the  English  language 
as  an  instrument  of  expression  does  not  result  from  solving  problems 


4"General  patterns  of  conduct"  is  used  as  a   general   name  for  ideals,  attitudes, 
interests,  tastes,  points  of  view,  and  the  like. 

[4] 


In  arithmetic;  the  study  of  history  contributes  very  little  if  any  to  a 
knowledge  of  a  science;  a  pupil  does  not  acquire  skill  in  adding  by  doing 
examples  in  division.  Each  type  of  activity  leads  to  certain  character- 
istic outcomes,  and  in  general  a  given  skill  or  item  of  knowledge  can 
be  acquired  only  by  engaging  in  a  certain  activity  or  activities  which 
meet  certain  requirements. 

In  many  cases  two  or  more  types  of  activities  may  lead  to  the  same 
outcomes  but  one  type  may  be  more  efficient  than  the  other.  For  ex- 
ample, there  are  several  methods  of  teaching  handwriting,  each  being 
based  on  a  certain  series  of  exercises,  but  there  is  probably  one  best 
series  of  exercises,  or  at  least  there  are  certain  better  series  of  exercises. 
Similarly,  achievement  in  spelling,  silent  reading,  and  other  fields  is 
probably  attained  more  efficiently  through  some  series  of  experiences 
than  through  others.  Furthermore,  the  attainment  of  the  maximum 
efficiency  in  learning  is  dependent  upon  the  distribution  of  the  learning 
activities  as  well  as  upon  their  nature  and  amount. 

The  effectiveness  of  a  given  activity  such  as  practicing  an  exercise 
on  the  piano,  doing  a  list  of  examples  in  arithmetic,  reading  a  textbook, 
writing  a  theme,  cooking  a  meal  and  the  like  is  conditioned  by  the 
learner's  attitude.  In  order  to  produce  the  desired  changes,  it  is  neces- 
sary that  his  attitude  be  such  that  he  derives  satisfaction  from  the 
activity.  If  he  is  not  interested,  he  will  learn  little  or  nothing.  Further- 
more, it  appears  that  phases  of  the  activity  are  dependent  upon  the 
learner's  attitude.  For  example,  in  studying  a  textbook,  a  pupil  who 
has  a  definite  purpose,  who  is  interested  in  understanding  the  state- 
ments of  the  author,  engages  in  mental  and  emotional  activities  that 
are  not  included  in  the  experience  of  one  who  merely  reads  the  pages 
with  an  attitude  of  indifference  or  antagonism. 

Two  methods  of  stimulating  participation  in  appropriate  learning 
activities.  The  teacher  faces  the  problem  of  securing  pupil-participation 
in  appropriate  learning  activities  under  conditions  that  are  favorable 
to  maximum  efficiency.  The  traditional  instructional  procedure,  which 
is  still  followed  by  most  teachers,  is  suggested  by  the  term  "assignment 
method."  According  to  this  procedure,  exercises  assigned  by  the  teacher 
constitute  the  basis  of  the  learning  activities  of  the  pupils  in  school.  In 
making  assignments  teachers  are  expected  to  secure  an  appropriate 
"mind-set"  and  to  motivate  the  doing  of  the  exercises.  After  the  doing 
of  the  assigned  exercises  is  begun,  the  teacher  directs  the  learning  activ- 
ities of  his  pupils  and  assigns  such  supplementary  exercises  as  may 
appear  to  be  needed. 

[5] 


The  "project  method"  represents  a  distinctly  different  approach  to 
the  stimulation  of  pupil-participation  in  appropriate  learning  activities. 
No  assignments  are  made.  Instead,  the  pupils  are  given  an  apportunity 
and  are  encouraged  to  do  things  they  want  to  do.  This  does  not  mean 
that  they  are  allowed  to  do  as  they  please  and  are  subject  to  no  re- 
straint nor  direction.  Spontaneous  proposals  by  the  pupils  which  do 
not  appear  to  lead  to  highly  educative  activity  may  be  discouraged  or 
even  vetoed  by  the  teacher.  On  the  other  hand,  the  teacher  may  stim- 
ulate purposing  by  the  pupils  and  even  suggest  projects  but  direct  assign- 
ments have  no  place  in  the  project  method. 

The  phrase,  "problem  method,"  has  been  used  to  designate  a  type 
of  instructional  procedure  which  is  sometimes  confused  with  the  project 
method.  There  is,  however,  a  fundamental  difference.  Under  the 
problem  method  the  exercise  is  assigned;  under  the  project  method 
it  is  proposed  by  the  pupils.  The  actual  activities  of  the  pupils 
and  the  outcomes,  both  mental  and  material,  may  appear  to  be  the  same 
but  the  teacher's  point  of  view  is  different.  The  problem  method  is  the 
assignment  method  applied  to  certain  types  of  exercises.5 

Before  entering  upon  the  consideration  of  the  relative  merits  of  the 
assignment  method  and  the  project  method,  it  will  be  helpful  to  elabo- 
rate the  definition  of  a  project  and  to  consider  descriptions  of  a  few 
typical  ones. 

Types  of  projects.  In  elaborating  his  definition  of  a  project,  Kil- 
patrick  describes  four  types: 

I.  Construction  projects.  "Experiences  in  which  the  dominating 
purpose  is  to  do,  to  make  or  to  effect." 

II.  Enjoyment  projects.  In  these  the  student  purposes  participa- 
tion in  an  activity  because  he  desires  the  enjoyment  or  satisfaction 
which  it  appears  to  afford. 

III.  Problem  projects.  In  order  for  a  problem  to  become  a  project, 
the  student  must  purpose  the  solving  of  it,  usually  without  an  assign- 
ment being  made. 

IV.  Learning  projects.  In  this  type  of  project  the  purpose  "is  to 
acquire  some  item  or  degree  of  knowledge  or  skill." 

Recognition  of  these  types  gives  the  term  project  a  more  compre- 


5Some  writers  on  methods  of  teaching  believe  the  problem  method  to  be  superior 
to  the  project  method.  The  point  is  made  that  the  problem  method  permits  the  teacher 
to  plan  the  work  for  his  class  in  advance  and  hence  secure  a  more  efficient  organization. 
It  is  also  maintained  that  most  if  not  all  of  the  advantages  of  the  project  method  may 
be  secured.   For  a  discussion  of  the  problem  method  and  illustration,  see: 

Parker,  S.  C.  Types  of  Elementary  Teaching  and  Learning.  Boston:  Ginn  and 
Company,  1923,  Chapter  X. 

[6] 


hensive  meaning  than  is  usually  associated  with  it.  Probably  a  reader 
may  ask  if  we  do  not  have  learning  projects  and  possibly  enjoyment 
projects  when  certain  types  of  assignments  are  properly  motivated. 
Although  it  is  likely  that  authorities  would  not  agree  in  answering  this 
question,  it  appears  that  Kilpatrick  would  say  that  an  assigned  exercise 
becomes  a  project  when  the  pupil  purposes  the  doing  of  it,  provided 
this  purpose  "fixes  the  aim  of  the  action"  and  guides  the  efforts  the 
pupil  makes  to  realize  this  aim. 

The  project  method  a  point  of  view,  not  a  teaching  formula.  The 
word  "method"  tends  to  suggest  a  procedure,  a  formula  for  the  conduct 
of  recitations  and  for  this  reason  the  phrase,  "project  method,"  is  mis- 
leading. The  project  method  is  not  a  teaching  formula;  it  is  a  point  of 
view,  a  philosophy  of  education.  According  to  it  the  specific  habits, 
knowledge  and  general  patterns  of  conduct  specified  by  our  educational 
objectives  are  to  be  acquired  by  children  as  by-products  as  they  strive 
to  realize  their  purposes.6 

The  project  method  has  been  described  as  a  "method  of  living." 
This  appears  to  mean  that,  when  the  method  is  employed,  the  school 
conditions  approach  those  under  which  children  learn  as  they  endeavor 
to  realize  purposes  outside  of  the  school.  Hosic  has  described  the  project 
method  as  "providing  opportunity  for  children  to  engage  in  living,  in 
satisfying,  worth-while  enterprises — worth-while  for  them;  .  .  .  guid- 
ing and  assisting  them  to  participate  in  these  enterprises  so  that  they 
may  reap  to  the  full  the  possible  benefits."7 

In  seeking  to  arrive  at  an  understanding  of  this  point  of  view,  one 
should  bear  in  mind  that  it  is  not  new  in  the  sense  that  the  term,  project 
method,  is  new.  Elements  of  it  may  be  found  in  the  writings  of  Rous- 
seau and  Pestalozzi;  it  is  illustrated  by  Dewey  in  the  University  Ele- 
mentary School  described  in  his  book  "The  School  and  Society"  written 
in  1899.  Phases  of  the  project  method  are  to  be  found  in  many  discus- 
sions of  teaching,  especially  those  dealing  explicitly  with  motivation. 
In  fact  it  has  been  suggested  that  the  project  method  represents  a 
coherent  synthesis  of  many  of  the  best  ideas  about  teaching  which  have 
been  evolved  since  1900  or  a  little  earlier.  Bagley8  has  stated  that  con- 
sidered as  such  "it  already  ranks  as  a  constructive  achievement  of  the 
first  magnitude." 


This  statement  does  not  apply  to  "learning  projects." 

7Hosic,  James  F.,  and  Chase,  Sara  E.  Brief  Guide  to  the  Project  Method.  Yonk- 
ers-on-Hudson :    World  Book  Company,  1924,  p.  7. 

8Bagley,  William  C.  "Projects  and  purposes  in  teaching  and  learning,"  Teachers 
College  Record,  22:288,  September,  1921. 

[7] 


The  point  of  view  of  the  assignment  method.  When  employing 
the  assignment  method,  the  attention  of  the  teacher  is  focused  upon 
controls  of  conduct  (specific  habits,  knowledge  and  general  patterns  of 
conduct)  which  it  appears  desirable  to  have  children  learn;  and  exer- 
cises are  formulated  and  assigned  which  are  expected  to  furnish  the 
basis  for  the  necessary  learning  activities.  The  essential  point  of  con- 
trast between  this  method  and  the  project  method  is  that  under  the 
former  the  pupil  is  engaged  in  doing  assigned  exercises,  while  under  the 
latter  the  basis  of  the  pupil's  learning  activities  is  his  own  purposes 
which  he  is  attempting  to  realize.  It  is  true  that  a  pupil  may  purpose 
the  doing  of  an  assigned  exercise  and  when  this  occurs  the  assignment 
method  tends  to  be  equivalent  to  the  project  method  so  far  as  the  pupil 
is  concerned.  The  teacher's  point  of  view  or  attitude,  however,  is  funda- 
mentally different;  he  is  guided  by  educational  objectives  concerning 
the  efficacy  of  learning  exercises  rather  than  by  the  interests,  desires 
and  purposes  of  his  pupils. 

The  reader  should  bear  in  mind  that  points  of  view  or  attitudes 
toward  the  education  of  children  are  being  contrasted  rather  than  class- 
room procedures  although  these  also  will  tend  to  differ.  Furthermore, 
the  two  points  of  view  are  not  mutually  exclusive,  at  least  as  repre- 
sented in  educational  practice.  The  project  method  does  not  mean  that 
the  pupils  are  free  to  do  as  they  please.  They  are  guided  in  their 
purposing  and  at  times  even  restrained.  Published  accounts  of  school 
projects  show  that  in  the  course  of  the  work  exercises  are  not  infrequently 
assigned.  The  exercises  usually  relate  to  the  purpose  the  pupils  are 
attempting  to  realize  and  may  be  given  very  tactfully  and  perhaps  indi- 
rectly, but  they  call  for  activity  that  probably  would  not  occur  in  the 
absence  of  the  assignment. 

On  the  other  hand,  the  assignment  method  as  now  conceived  in 
theory  and  represented  in  much  of  our  educational  practice  is  not 
opposed  to  utilizing  children's  purposes  as  a  basis  of  educative  activity. 
Current  discussions  of  motivation,  which  is  a  phase  of  instructional 
procedure  associated  with  the  assignment  method,  insist  that  the  teacher 
should  endeavor  to  get  his  pupils  to  purpose  the  doing  of  the  exercises 
assigned.  Teachers  who  approach  their  work  with  the  attitude  of  the 
assignment  method  frequently  succeed  in  getting  their  pupils  to  purpose 
the  doing  of  some  or  even  most  of  the  exercises  they  assign.  The  secret 
of  their  success  is  their  skill  in  motivating  learning  activity  and  in  this 
phase  of  their  work  they  may  approach  the  project  method  so  far  as 
procedures  are  concerned,  although  their  point  of  view  is  essentially 
different. 


[8] 


The  attitude  represented  by  the  often  quoted  statement  that  "It 
<loesn't  matter  what  a  boy  studies  as  long  as  he  doesn't  like  it"  is  fre- 
quently associated  with  the  assignment  method  but  it  is  incompatible 
with  this  method  as  now  conceived.  Other  things  being  equal,  it  is 
desirable  that  the  pupil  enjoy  doing  the  exercises  assigned.  The  advo- 
cates of  the  assignment  method,  at  least  the  more  progressive  ones, 
maintain  that  the  teacher  should  capitalize  children's  purposes  in  moti- 
vating the  doing  of  learning  exercises.  Furthermore,  they  would  have 
the  teacher  adapt  his  learning  exercises  to  the  interests  of  his  pupils 
and  in  doing  this  the  assignment  method  approaches  the  project  method. 
In  fact  some  of  the  advocates  of  the  latter  method  would  probably 
insist  that  it  becomes  the  project  method.  Kilpatrick's  inclusion  of 
"learning  projects"  and  "enjoyment  projects"  appears  to  evidence  the 
recognition  of  the  possible  necessity  of  exercises  that  are  "assigned"  by 
the  teacher,  but  doubtless  he  would  have  the  assignments  made  indi- 
rectly so  that  the  pupils  would  not  be  aware  that  the  teacher  was  impos- 
ing his  purposes  on  them. 

Illustrations  of  projects.  Many  cases  of  educative  activity  have 
been  described  in  our  educational  literature  under  the  title  of  "projects." 
The  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Edu- 
cation, Part  I,9  presents  a  compilation  of  285  descriptions  under  this 
title  but  in  most  cases  the  activity  of  the  pupils  appears  to  be  based  on  a 
problem  or  some  other  type  of  assigned  exercise.  A  number  of  sample 
projects  are  described  in  Hosic  and  Chase,  "A  Brief  Guide  to  the  Project 
Method."10  Collings11  lists  by  title  the  projects  worked  out  in  a  four- 
year  experiment  in  a  rural  school  and  describes  a  number  of  representa- 
tive ones.  The  following  is  a  brief  summary  of  the  description  of  a 
"Corn  Fair"  which  was  carried  out  by  a  group  of  upper-grade  children. 

In  discussing  a  visit  to  a  "Harvest  Show"  in  a  neighboring  town, 
the  pupils  proposed  organizing  a  similar  enterprise  for  their  own  com- 
munity.12 At  subsequent  conferences  of  the  group  the  project  was 
planned,  the  teacher  making  occasional  suggestions.  First  a  general 
program  was  agreed  upon  and  committees  were  appointed  for  the  fol- 
lowing activities:     (1)  Exhibits,   (2)   Speakers,   (3)   Dinner,   (4)   Prizes 


Published  by  the  Public  School  Publishing  Company  of  Bloomington,  Illinois, 
1921. 

10Published  by  the  World  Book  Company,  Yonkers-on-Hudson,  New  York,  1924. 

"This  is  a  brief  account  of  a  project  described  in: 

Collings,  Ellsworth.  An  Experiment  with  a  Project  Curriculum.  New  York:. 
The  Macmillan  Company,  1923,  p.  101-16. 

"Four  neighboring  schools  were  invited  to  participate  in  the  "Corn  Fair." 

[9] 


and  Judges,  (5)  Date,  and  (6)  Demonstrations.  In  carrying  out  the 
plans,  programs  and  posters  were  printed.  Each  pupil  planned  and  made 
one  or  more  exhibits.  Certain  ones  practiced  demonstrations  to  give 
at  the  fair. 

At  the  first  conference  after  the  "Corn  Fair,"  the  project  was  dis- 
cussed. The  teacher  remarked  that  the  affair  had  been  successful; 
everything  working  out  as  they  had  planned.  She,  however,  suggested 
certain  improvements  that  could  be  made  if  another  one  were  held. 
The  pupils  also  made  a  number  of  suggestions.  At  the  request  of  the 
editor  of  the  local  paper  for  an  account  of  their  "Corn  Fair,"  each  of 
the  children  prepared  an  article,  and  at  a  conference  the  various  accounts 
were  read  and  the  one  considered  best  by  the  children  was  selected  to 
send  to  the  editor. 

It  is  apparent  from  Collings'  account  that  throughout  this  project 
the  teacher  was  in  the  background.  The  pupils  planned  the  various 
things  to  be  done  and  did  the  work.  A  few  suggestions  were  offered  by 
the  teacher,  but  many  more  came  from  the  pupils.  The  group  criticised 
suggestions  made  by  its  members.  The  purpose  also  was  the  children's. 
The  teacher  probably  assisted  in  its  development,  and  perhaps  may 
have  been  somewhat  responsible  for  its  initiation,  but  it  was  clearly  a 
pupil  project  and  not  imposed  upon  the  class  by  the  teacher  and  the 
school. 

Collings13  also  describes  how  a  project  grew  out  of  a  question  asked 
by  a  member  of  a  primary  group  as  to  why  Mrs.  Murphy  grew  sun- 
flowers along  the  rear  of  her  vegetable  garden.  Inability  of  the  group 
to  answer  this  question  resulted  in  a  visit  to  Airs.  Murphy's  garden  to 
ascertain  the  answer  and  to  learn  how  the  sunflower  differs  from  other 
flowers.  In  addition  several  references  on  the  topic  were  read  and  each 
pupil  prepared  a  report  of  the  visit.  Some  of  the  other  projects  carried 
out  by  the  pupils  of  the  primary  group  are  suggested  by  the  follow- 
ing titles : 

How  Mr.  Long  makes  molasses. 

How  the  dandelion  spreads  so  rapidly. 

How  tomatoes  are  canned  at  the  local  canning  factory. 

What  are  the  different  kinds  of  birds  in  our  community? 

How  Mr.  Murphy  cares  for  his  sheep  in  the  winter. 

Finding  out  how  wheat  flour  is  made  at  McNatt. 

The  illness  of  two  members  of  the  intermediate  group  formed  the 
basis  of  a  study  of  the  causes  of  typhoid  fever.14   This  in  turn  led  to  a 


"Collings,  Ellsworth.    Op.  cit.,  p.  50. 
"Collings,  Ellsworth.   Op.  cit.,  p.  54. 

[10] 


study  of  the  prevalence  of  diseases  in  the  community  and  how  to  combat 
the  house-fly.  A  report  of  the  study  of  the  prevalence  of  diseases  formed 
the  program  of  a  community  meeting  at  the  school  building. 

Hotchkiss15  describes  a  project  that  grew  out  of  a  pupil  asking, 
"Why  is  Africa  called  the  Dark  Continent?"  In  attempting  to  secure 
the  answer  to  this  question,  it  became  apparent  that  the  class  did  not 
have  an  adequate  concept  of  the  topography,  climate,  vegetation,  and 
so  forth  of  this  continent  and  plans  were  suggested  and  discussed  for 
making  Africa  better  known  to  the  class  and  to  other  children  in  the 
school.  It  was  decided  to  construct  a  large  sand  map  on  which  would 
be  represented  all  of  the  information  about  Africa  the  class  could 
assemble. 

A  seed  store  project16  was  initiated  during  a  study  of  seeds  by  ask- 
ing the  children  "if  they  would  like  to  have  a  seed  store  in  school  and 
they,  of  course,  were  most  enthusiastic."  The  class  made  (1)  "a  seed 
store  of  big  blocks,"  (2)  "boxes  for  seeds,"  (3)  labels  for  the  different 
kinds  of  seeds,  and  (4)  baskets  in  which  to  gather  the  seeds. 

A  study  of  municipal  sanitation  grew  out  of  the  question,  "Why 
should  a  city  have  pure  water?"17  When  it  was  found  that  the  class 
could  not  answer  this  question,  a  committee  consulted  the  city  engineer 
and  arranged  for  a  visit  to  the  city  water  plant.  Another  committee 
visited  the  city  health  office  and  gathered  data  on  health  conditions  in 
the  city. 

The  lack  of  satisfactory  information  concerning  vocations  resulted 
in  junior  high-school  pupils  taking  the  initiative  in  collecting  this  much 
needed  information  for  the  school  library.  "Each  pupil  volunteered  to 
obtain  personal  interviews  from  at  least  five  prominent  persons  in  the 
professions,  trades,  commercial  lines,  management,  manufacturing,  or 
farming,  and  to  report  these  to  the  class  for  discussion.  A  series  of 
questions  was  agreed  upon  by  the  class.  Committees  were  formed  to 
take  charge  of  each  type  of  interview,  as  lawyers,  physicians,  and  so 
forth  and  to  work  over  material  collected  and  to  formulate  one  compre- 
hensive report  on  its  vocation."18 

The  beginning  of  a  construction  project  is  described  as  follows: 
"One  noon  a  boy  came  to  me  early  and  said:    'Eight  of  us  boys  from 


15Hotchkiss,  E.  A.  The  Project  Method  in  Classroom  Work.  Boston:  Ginn  and 
Company,  1924,  p.  55-71. 

10The  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 
Part  I.    Bloomington,  Illinois:    Public  School  Publishing  Company,   1921,  p.  6. 

"Ibid,  p.  140. 

"Ibid,  p.  166. 

[HI 


the  class  belong  to  a  club  at  the  church  and  we  want  a  bulletin  board. 
Could  we  make  one?  Of  course  we  want  to  pay  for  the  lumber.'  I  said. 
'Yes,  if  you  will  do  it  all.'  And  before  they  were  through,  they  discov- 
ered the  doing  it  all  meant  more  than  paying  for  the  value  of  the  lum- 
ber and  the  actual  work  of  making  the  board."19  This  group  found  it 
necessary  to  determine  what  kind  of  lumber  to  use,  how  much  lumber 
to  buy,  and  the  design  of  the  bulletin  board. 

The  relative  efficiency  of  the  assignment  method  and  the  project 
method.  A  method  of  teaching  is  not  good  or  efficient  because  it  is  new 
and  has  advocates  who  advertise  it  extensively;  a  method  of  teaching 
is  not  inefficient  or  undesirable  because  it  is  old  and  may  be  labelled 
"traditional."  The  merits  of  an  instructional  procedure  are  determined 
by  its  effectiveness  in  engendering  specific  habits,  knowledge  and  general 
patterns  of  conduct.  Hence  the  logical  way  to  determine  the  relative 
efficiency  of  the  assignment  method  and  the  project  method  would  be 
to  have  the  two  methods  employed  under  similar  conditions  and  the 
resulting  effects  upon  the  achievements  of  the  pupils  measured. 

Collings20  has  reported  an  experiment  in  which  he  compares  the 
project  method  applied  to  the  entire  curriculum  of  a  rural  school  with 
the  usual  course  of  study  and  methods  of  instruction.  In  the  experi- 
mental school  no  subjects  were  taught.  The  pupils,  forty-one  in  number. 
were  divided  into  three  groups.  The  method  of  creating  purposes  and 
selecting  those  to  be  utilized  as  a  basis  of  learning  activity  is  described 
by  Collings  under  the  head  of  "curriculum  principles."  The  essentials 
of  the  procedure  are  (1)  the  suggestion  of  purposes  (potential  projects) 
by  both  teacher  and  pupils,  (2)  a  discussion  by  the  members  of  the 
group,  including  the  teacher,  of  the  value  and  feasibility  of  the  proposed 
projects,  and  (3)  the  selection  of  one  for  group  participation,  the  ma- 
jority determining  the  choice. 

At  the  close  of  the  experiment,  which  extended  over  a  period  of 
four  years,  the  following  tests  were  given  in  both  the  experimental  school 
and  two  control  schools. 

Thorndike-McCall:    Reading  Scale.  Form  I  (grades  four  to  eight  inclusive). 

Haggerty:    Reading  Examination.  Sigma  I.  Test  I  (grades  one  to  three  inclusive). 

Van  Wagenen:    American  History  Scales.  Information  Scale  A. 

Hillegas:    Scale  for  the  Measurement  of  Quality  in  English  Composition. 

Woody:  Measurements  of  Some  Achievements  in  Arithmetic..  Series  B  (grades 
four  to  eight  inclusive). 


19The  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education, 
Part  I.    Bloomington,  Illinois:    Public  School  Publishing  Company.  1921.  p.  166-67. 

20Collixgs,  Ellsworth.  An  Experiment  with  a  Project  Curriculum.  Xew  York: 
The  Macmillan  Company,  1923,  p.  346. 

[12] 


Collings:    Tests  for  Measuring  the  Four  Fundamental  Operations  in  Arithmetic 

(for  the  first  four  grades) 
Starch:    Spelling  Scales,  Forms  1  and  2. 
Thorndike:    Scale  for  Measuring  Handwriting. 
Hahn-Lackey:    Geography  Scale. 

National  Intelligence  Tests.    Scale  A,  Form  1  (grades  four  to  eight  inclusive). 
Haggerty:    Intelligence  Examination,  Delta  I    (grades  one  to  three  inclusive). 

In  addition  Collings  considered  such  items  as,  "percent  of  pupils 
enumerated  in  district  enrolled  in  school,"  "attendance,  truancy,  cases 
of  corporal  punishment,"  "percent  of  parents  visiting  the  school  during 
the  school  year,"  and  changes  in  community  life. 

The  average  of  all  test  scores  for  the  experimental  school  was  38 
percent  greater  than  the  corresponding  average  of  the  control  schools 
taken  together.  Although  the  tests  used  do  not  yield  highly  accurate 
scores  and  measure  only  certain  achievements,  the  results  tend  to  be 
convincing,  especially  when  considered  in  connection  with  the  data21 
relating  to  the  conduct  of  pupils,  the  attitude  of  parents  and  the  life  of 
the  community.  However,  when  one  inquires  concerning  the  equivalence 
of  the  experimental  school  and  the  two  control  schools,  he  finds  that 
several  factors,  other  than  the  curriculum  and  the  associated  instruc- 
tional procedures,  differ.  Among  those  listed  by  Collings  are  (1)  library 
and  equipment,  being  distinctly  superior  in  the  experimental  school, 
(2)  number  of  teachers  (a  second  teacher  was  employed  in  the  experi- 
mental school  at  the  middle  of  the  first  year),22  (3)  weekly  community 
meetings  in  which  the  pupils  participated  were  "an  integral  part  of  the 
procedure"  of  the  experimental  school  in  contrast  with  about  six  com- 
munity meetings  of  the  "adult  type"  in  the  control  schools,  (4)  a  dis- 
tinctly greater  amount  of  supervision  of  the  experimental  school.  In 
addition  to  the  factors  that  Collings  lists,  one  suspects  that  the  teachers 
in  the  experimental  school  together  with  Collings,23  who  was  the  super- 
visor, exhibited  much  greater  zeal  and  enthusiasm  and  invested  more 
energy  in  the  work  than  did  the  teachers  in  the  control  schools. 

In  view  of  these  and  other  variable  factors,  it  does  not  appear  that 
this  experiment  answers  the  question  concerning  the  relative  merits  of 
the  assignment  method  and  the  project  method  in  general.  The  data 
appear  to  justify  the  assertion  that  the  project  method  as  employed  in 
the  experimental  school  was  successful,  but  they  probably  do  not  prove 


21These  are  distinctly  favorable  to  the  experimental  school. 

22This  condition  is  partially  offset  by  the  fact  that  the  enrollment  in  the  experi- 
mental school  was  41  and  only  29  and  31  in  the  control  schools. 

23Collings  was  the  County  Superintendent  and  therefore  had  an  official  relation- 
ship with  the  teachers. 

[13] 


that  under  "normal"  conditions  the  project  method  would  be  more  effi- 
cient or  even  as  efficient  as  the  conventional  curriculum  and  the  assign- 
ment method. 

Logical  evidence.  Since  the  experimental  evidence  is  not  conclu- 
sive, it  will  be  helpful  to  note  certain  logical  considerations.  In  the  first 
place  one  may  properly  raise  the  question  whether  the  realization  of  pur- 
poses in  which  skills  and  information  are  used  as  tools  may  always  be  ex- 
pected to  result  in  the  degree  of  mastery  that  is  specified  by  our  educa- 
tional objectives.  If  we  grant  that  the  execution  of  a  project  represents  a 
highly  efficient  initial  learning  of  skills  and  information,  it  does  not  neces- 
sarily follow  that  projects  alone  will  provide  sufficient  learning  activity  for 
the  attainment  of  the  desired  degree  of  mastery  or  that  project  activity  is 
the  most  efficient  learning  activity  for  the  attainment  of  all  objectives. 
When  the  student's  purpose  is  merely  one  for  which  certain  controls  of 
conduct  are  needed  as  tools,  the  learning  of  them  may  stop  short  of  the 
degree  of  mastery  considered  desirable.  Of  course  if  one  accepts  Kil- 
patrick's  definition  of  a  project  and  the  type  of  project  in  which  the 
student  purposes  the  acquiring  of  certain  specific  habits  or  other  con- 
trols of  conduct,  he  would  be  forced  to  admit  that  when  such  a  project 
was  formed  by  a  student,  the  ensuing  project  activity  would  represent 
the  optimum  learning  activity,  provided  it  conformed  to  the  laws  of 
learning. 

The  significance  of  the  provision  attached  to  the  preceding  state- 
ment is  illustrated  in  the  acquisition  of  skills  necessary  for  the  efficient 
operation  of  a  typewriter.  A  student  who  purposes  the  acquisition  of 
these  skills  will  probably  not  exhibit  efficient  learning  if  he  is  simply 
provided  with  a  typewriter  and  permitted  to  achieve  his  purpose  in  his 
own  way.  It  is  not  likely  that,  undirected,  he  will  choose  the  best  prac- 
tice exercises  or  distribute  his  periods  of  practice  in  the  best  way.  The 
dominating  purpose  is  not  sufficient  to  insure  efficient  learning.  Direc- 
tion by  the  teacher,  including  the  assignment  of  definite  exercises  or 
at  least  the  suggestion  of  exercises  and  the  distribution  of  practice 
periods,  appears  necessary  for  maximum  efficiency.  However,  the  pres- 
ence of  a  dominating  desire  to  learn  contributes  greatly  to  the  efficacy 
of  the  learning  process. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  should  be  noted  that  as  one  practices  in  ac- 
quiring motor  skills,  memorizes  a  formula,  rule,  poem,  dates  in  history 
or  other  facts,  solves  problems,  reads  a  textbook  or  engages  in  other 
learning  activities,  he  derives  certain  by-products  in  addition  to  the 
direct  outcomes.  The  latter  tend  to  be  obvious  to  both  the  teacher  and 
learner,  but  the  by-products  (ideals,  attitudes,  interests,  tastes,  perspec- 

[14] 


tives  and  the  like)  tend  to  be  intangible  and  frequently  give  little  evi- 
dence of  their  existence.  However,  in  general,  as  a  pupil  studies 
arithmetic,  he  is  acquiring  attitudes  and  interests  as  well  as  learning 
arithmetic;  as  he  studies  history,  he  learns  facts,  meanings,  concepts 
and  the  like  but  he  also  is  building  up  general  patterns  of  conduct. 

It  has  been  asserted  that  the  project  method  creates  conditions 
which  are  distinctly  favorable  to  the  production  of  by-products,  espe- 
cially those  commonly  designated  as  initiative,  resourcefulness,  self-con- 
fidence, cooperation,  willingness  to  assume  responsibility,  persistence, 
interest  in  the  field  of  activity  and  the  like.  The  extent  to  which  the 
conditions  essential  to  the  engendering  of  such  patterns  of  conduct  are 
more  apt  to  be  secured  under  the  project  method  than  under  the  assign- 
ment method  is  a  question  on  which  there  are  differences  of  opinion. 
In  the  judgment  of  the  writer,  the  method  to  which  the  teacher  sub- 
scribes is  in  general  less  important  than  his  sensitiveness  in  detecting 
opportunities  for  engendering  patterns  of  conduct  and  his  skill  in 
handling  the  opportunities  that  arise. 

Relation  of  the  project  method  to  the  curriculum.  We  have  been 
accustomedto  think  of  the  curriculum  of  the  school  in  terms  of  certain 
subjects — reading,  writing,  arithmetic,  spelling,  history,  algebra,  Latin, 
physics,  manual  training,  and  so  forth, — each  of  which  represents  certain 
controls  of  conduct  to  be  acquired,  that  is,  certain  facts  to  be  memorized, 
certain  abstract  and  general  meanings  to  be  comprehended,  certain 
rules  and  principles  to  be  mastered,  and  the  like.  It  has  been  consid- 
ered important  that  each  child  study  the  prescribed  subjects  and  cover 
the  prescribed  content  of  each.  During  recent  years  this  concept  of  the 
function  of  the  school  has  been  modified,  especially  in  the  kindergarten 
and  primary  grades,  but  many  teachers  as  well  as  the  great  majority 
of  the  general  public  still  consider  it  vital  that  the  school  have  a  definite 
curriculum  and  the  "ground"  prescribed  by  it  be  covered  by  all  pupils 
who  are  rated  as  "passing." 

The  project  method  implies  a  concept  of  school  work  which  when 
contrasted  with  that  of  a  definite  curriculum  may  be  called  revolution- 
ary. Since  under  the  project  method  the  activity  of  the  pupil  is  devoted 
to  the  realization  of  his  purposes,  the  "ground"  he  covers  is  determined 
by  them.  In  view  of  the  differences  in  the  interests  of  children,  it  is 
obvious  that,  unless  they  are  subject  to  more  rigid  direction  than  is 
compatible  with  the  project  method  as  interpreted  by  most  of  its  ad- 
vocates, the  pupils  completing  a  division  of  our  school  system  will  differ 
in  the  content  of  their  achievements. 


[15] 


Until  recently  the  desirability  of  a  definite  content  for  each  school 
subject  and  hence  a  uniform  content  for  all  students  who  take  the  same 
subjects  have  not  been  considered  as  debatable  questions  by  most  edu- 
cators. On  the  other  hand  an  increasing  number  of  students  of  educa- 
tion are  now  maintaining  that  uniformity  of  content  is  not  essential  and 
perhaps,  all  things  considered,  not  desirable.  As  is  the  case  in  many 
controversies,  there  appears  to  be  some  truth  on  both  sides.  In  general 
it  is  desirable  that  a  school  formulate  a  curriculum,  but  the  degree  of 
its  definiteness  and  of  conformity  to  it  may  properly  vary  with  the 
maturity  of  the  students,  the  training  of  the  teachers  and  the  expertness 
of  the  supervision  of  instruction.  Other  things  being  equal,  a  definite 
curriculum  and  conformity  to  it  appear  least  desirable  in  the  kinder- 
garten and  the  graduate  school  of  the  university.  Definite  curricular 
requirements  are  probably  most  desirable  from  the  fourth  grade  through 
the  ninth  and  are  more  desirable  in  the  "tool"  subjects  than  in  the 
"content"  subjects. 

If  all  of  the  school  activity  of  pupils  is  based  on  projects,  their 
learning  will  not  conform  to  a  definite  curriculum  unless  their  purpos- 
ing is  directed  by  the  teacher  to  a  greater  extent  than  the  project  method 
assumes.  At  some  stages  of  school  work,  and  in  some  phases  at  all 
stages,  certain  departures  from  a  definite  curriculum  may  be  justified 
and  any  undesirable  gaps  may  be  eliminated  by  the  assignment  of 
appropriate  learning  exercises.  The  extent  of  these  gaps,  and  hence 
the  need  for  the  assignment  of  learning  exercises  will  depend  upon  the 
resourcefulness  and  skill  of  the  teacher  in  directing  the  purposing  of 
his  students.  Under  favorable  conditions  such  as  existed  in  Collings' 
experiment  (see  pages  12,  13),  there  may  be  no  undesirable  gaps. 

Thus  we  appear  to  be  justified  in  concluding  that  the  project  method 
and  a  fixed  curriculum  are  necessarily  incompatible.  The  project  method 
may  be  employed,  sometimes  extensively,  without  undesirable  de- 
partures from  a  curriculum  typical  of  those  now  adhered  to  by  our 
schools.  However,  the  adoption  of  the  project  method  as  the  typical 
instructional  procedure  will  usually  make  it  impossible  to  follow  a  pre- 
scribed curriculum. 

Relation  of  the  project  method  to  the  level  of  intelligence.  Our 
study  of  the  intelligence  of  children  has  led  to  the  conviction  that  in- 
structional procedures  should  be  adjusted  to  their  capacity  to  learn. 
In  general  a  given  procedure  is  not  equally  effective  with  all  children 
of  a  given  age  or  even  with  all  who  belong  to  the  same  school  grade. 
This  is  true  of  the  project  method,  although  it  represents  a  general  pro- 
cedure and  thus  some  adaptation  to  individual  differences  may  be  made, 

[16] 


but  one  may  properly  raise  the  question,  "Is  the  project  method  equally 
appropriate  for  all  levels  of  intelligence?" 

Intelligence  is  commonly  defined  in  general  terms  as  "capacity  to 
learn"  or  somewhat  more  specifically  as  "capacity  to  do  school  tasks," 
but,  either  as  phases  of  this  capacity  or  as  additional  elements,  intelli- 
gence includes  traits  to  which  we  are  accustomed  to  assign  such  names 
as  curiosity,  interests,  initiative,  resourcefulness,  perseverance,  enter- 
prise and  the  like.  Children  who  are  low  in  the  scale  of  intelligence  are 
usually  lacking  in  curiosity  concerning  their  environment,  have  few 
interests,  exhibit  little  initiative,  are  not  resourceful,  seldom  persevere 
and  are  not  enterprising.  On  the  other  hand  bright  children  tend  to 
exhibit  the  opposite  tendencies.  It  is  therefore  apparent  that  bright 
children  are  more  likely  to  have  purposes  which  they  wish  to  realize 
and,  when  they  do  not,  may  be  easily  stimulated  to  purposing  by  the 
teacher.  We  recognize  this  fact  by  describing  bright  children  as  leaders. 
On  the  other*  hand  children  possessing  only  average  or  less  than  average 
intelligence  have  few  interests,  and  as  a  rule  it  will  be  difficult  for  the 
teacher  to  stimulate  a  dominating  purpose  that  will  "fix  the  aim  of 
action,  guide  its  processes  and  furnish  the  necessary  driving  force." 

The  considerations  of  the  preceding  paragraphs  appear  to  justify 
the  conclusion  that  the  project  method  is  more  easily  employed  with 
pupils  on  the  higher  levels  of  intelligence  than  with  those  on  the  lower 
levels.  It  seems  doubtful  if  many  of  the  latter  group  can  be  stimulated 
to  purpose  the  doing  of  a  sufficient  number  of  things  to  provide  much 
of  the  activity  required  to  educate  children  of  limited  intelligence.  When 
less  capable  pupils  are  grouped  with  those  on  the  higher  levels  of  intelli- 
gence, this  conclusion  may  need  modification  because  the  brighter  pupils 
will  exercise  leadership.  In  such  cases,  however,  those  on  the  lower 
levels  of  intelligence  will  profit  least  from  projects  because  the  others 
will  do  most  of  the  work. 

Conclusion  in  regard  to  the  relative  merit  of  the  assignment 
method  and  the  project  method.  It  has  doubtless  been  apparent  to  the 
reader  of  the  preceding  pages  that  in  the  judgment  of  the  writer  both 
the  assignment  method  and  the  project  method  have  merit.  There  ap- 
pears to  be  no  doubt  but  that,  as  employed  by  some  teachers,  the  project 
method  is  a  highly  efficient  instructional  procedure.  It,  however,  does 
not  follow  that  if  the  assignment  method  were  completely  replaced  by 
it,  the  efficiency  of  our  schools  would  be  increased.  Sometimes,  espe- 
cially when  fundamental  skills  are  to  be  mastered,  the  assignment 
method  seems  superior.  Hence,  it  appears  reasonable  to  conclude  that 
(1)   a  teacher  should  afford  opportunity  for  his  pupils  to  realize  their 

[17] 


purposes,  provided  they  appear  to  be  worth  while;  (2)  a  teacher  should 
encourage  purposing  and  cultivate  embryonic  purposes;  (3)  on  the 
other  hand,  the  teacher  should  expect  to  employ  the  assignment  method 
whenever  his  pupils  fail  to  propose  appropriate  projects.  In  many  cases 
this  will  mean  that  the  assignment  method  is  the  predominant  instruc- 
tional procedure.24 


24The  statements  of  two  writers  are  quoted  in  support  of  this  conclusion. 

"I  am  inclined  to  believe  that,  if  provision  is  made  for  giving  children  scope  and 
opportunity  to  work  out  many  of  their  spontaneous  purposes,  there  can  well  be  some 
measure  of  controlled  and  directed  activity  to  take  care  of  the  types  of  learning  which 
our  adult  judgment  deems  essential  and  which  the  child  may  not  happen  to  hit  upon 
accidentally.  Until  further  evidence  is  available,  I  should  say  that  it  is  better  that  he 
should  be  encouraged  to  accept  this  control  as  a  matter  of  course,  than  that  we  should 
attempt  to  delude  him  into  the  belief  that  he  is  making  a  free  choice  when  in  reality 
the  choice  is  made  by  someone  else.  .  .  .  Instead  of  decrying  adult  control  as  a  neces- 
sary evil,  we  see  it  now  as  an  essential  virtue  through  the  agency  of  which,  and  pri- 
marily through  the  agency  of  which,  human  progress  has  been  made  possible.  The  great 
educational  problem  is  to  use  it  wisely  but  not  to  abuse  it;  to  recognize  where  it  should 
stop  but  not  to  abandon  it  entirely  even  in  theory."  (Bagley,  William  C.  "Projects 
and  purposes  in  teaching  and  learning/'  Teachers  College  Record,  22:295-96,  Septem- 
ber, 1921.) 

"In  general  I  believe  this  principle  will  be  found  to  hold.  If  the  knowledge  or 
skill  is  of  such  a  character  that  undesirable  results  follow  directly  from  failure,  purpose- 
ful activity  may  be  depended  upon  to  build  up  slowly,  by  trial  and  error  methods, 
correct  habits  and  adequate  degrees  of  skill.  But  if  the  operation  of  the  habit  or  skill 
is  obscure,  so  that  cause  and  effect  may  not  be  easily  and  directly  traced,  mere  activity, 
except  by  chance,  will  not  produce  the  desired  result. 

"Our  civilization  is  the  product  of  an  age-long  evolution  in  which  the  best  solu- 
tions for  our  common  problems  have  been  slowly  and  laboriously  built  up  by  the  master 
minds  of  the  ages.  The  basic  function  of  the  school  is  to  transmit  this  social  inheritance 
to  the  oncoming  generation.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  more  efficiently  this  duty  is 
discharged,  the  greater  will  be  the  contribution  to  the  social  progress  which  the  new 
generation  will  make. 

"From  this  point  of  view  the  school  must  not  only  see  to  it  that  the  child  acquires 
the  fundamental  skills,  but  also  that  he  wastes  no  time  in  doing  so.  If  compulsory  drill 
exercises  under  expert  teaching  will  short-circuit  the  slow  evolutionary  development 
which  comes  from  the  use  of  skill  in  purposeful  activity,  then  not  to  drill  a  child  is  to 
handicap  both  him  and  society.  .  .  . 

"I  can  find  nothing  intrinsically  wrong  with  drill.  Under  right  conditions  and  done 
with  the  proper  motives,  it  is  one  of  the  most  efficient  forms  of  educational  activity.  It 
is  true  that  all  persons  do  not  need  drill.  Even  in  Gary  in  all  the  elementary  grades 
there  were  children  who  had  spent  their  entire  educational  lives  in  the  Gary  schools, 
yet  who  were  able  to  spell  perfectly  the  tests  for  their  grade.  There  are  individuals 
who  without  drill  are  able  to  drive  an  automobile  or  an  aeroplane  the  first  time  they 
try  it,  who,  in  other  words,  learn  so  readily  by  doing  that  they  need  no  other  training. 
The  essential  point  to  notice,  however,  is  that  the  number  of  such  individuals  is  small. 
On  the  basis  of  such  measurements  as  have  been  made  we  can  say  with  some  definite- 
ness  that  the  number  of  children  who  are  "natural-born"  spellers  is  approximately  ten 
percent  of  the  total.  For  the  other  90  percent  the  acquisition  of  adequate  skill  involves 
either  a  prolonged  period  of  purposeful  activity  or  some  form  of  direct  drill."    (Courtis, 

[18] 


The  technique  of  the  project  method.  The  basic  difference  between 
the  project  method  and  the  assignment  method  is  that  in  the  former 
the  pupils  propose  things  to  do  while  in  the  latter  the  teacher  assigns 
exercises  to  be  done.  Hence,  the  technique  of  the  project  method  con- 
cerns the  procedures  employed  in  order  to  stimulate  pupils  to  want  to 
do  things  having  a  high  educative  value.  Occasionally  as  in  the  project 
involving  the  construction  of  a  bulletin  board,  (sec  page  12)  the  teacher 
may  be  approached  by  the  pupils  with  a  request  to  be  allowed  to  do 
something,  but  usually  he  will  find  it  necessary  to  stimulate  his  pupils 
to  form  purposes.  It  will  seldom  be  wise  for  him  to  approach  the  group 
with  the  direct  inquiry,  "What  would  you  like  to  do?"  Although  this 
is  what  the  teacher  desires  to  know,  he  should  seek  the  answer  indirectly. 

In  the  experiment  described  by  Collings  (see  pages  12, 13),  a  confer- 
ence period  was  provided  in  which  the  pupils  as  well  as  the  teacher  asked 
questions.  Some  of  these  related  to  their  physical  environment,  others 
to  current  events.  A  number  represented  the  natural  interests  of  the 
children.  Frequently  a  project  grew  out  of  a  question  asked  by  a  pupil 
during  the  conference  period.  The  basis  of  the  teacher's  success  appears 
to  have  been  tactful  suggestions  plus  keenness  in  detecting  and  in  under- 
standing embryonic  purposes.  After  the  purposing  of  projects  becomes 
fashionable  in  a  school  or  in  a  group,  the  teacher's  task  is  made  easier. 

When  all  of  the  work  of  a  group  is  not  placed  on  a  project  basis, 
the  teacher's  technique  should  be  essentially  the  same  in  principle, 
although  it  need  not  be  as  elaborate.  The  important  requirement  is 
that  he  demonstrate  a  sympathetic  receptiveness  to  proposals  of  projects 
and  that  he  be  alert  in  detecting  symptoms  of  embryonic  purposes. 
Many  projects  have  started  with  a  question  asked  by  a  pupil;  if  he  is 
sincere,  it  represents  a  desire  to  know,  a  purpose.  A  teacher  can  easily 
discourage  a  questioning  attitude  on  the  part  of  his  pupils  by  ignoring 
their  questions  or  by  pronouncing  those  of  which  he  does  not  approve 
as  irrelevant  or  silly.  The  ridicule  and  even  sarcasm  which  not  infre- 
quently greet  strange  and  awkwardly  worded  questions  have  undoubt- 
edly killed  or  discouraged  many  developing  purposes.  It  is  obvious 
that  the  project  method  requires  that  the  teacher  respond  courteously 
and  sympathetically  to  any  sincere  question  asked  by  a  pupil.25 


Stuart  A.  "Teaching  through  the  use  of  projects  or  purposeful  acts,"  Teachers  Col- 
lege Record,  21:142-44,  146,  March,  1920  ) 

'"For  an  interesting  account  of  projects  developed  from  questions  asked  by 
pupils,  sec: 

Linke,  Edith  A.  "An  experiment  in  teaching  in  response  to  children's  questions," 
Teachers  College  Record,  21:55-67,  January,  1920. 

[19] 


A  question,  even  if  sincere,  seldom  represents  a  "dominating  pur- 
pose." Usually  it  indicates  only  the  beginning  of  one.  Hence,  if  the 
teacher  immediately  answers  the  question  to  the  satisfaction  of  the  pupil, 
a  dominating  purpose  will  not  develop  because  the  desire  has  been  sat- 
isfied. The  concept  of  the  project  method  implies  that  the  pupils  are  to 
realize  their  purposes  with  a  minimum  of  assistance  from  the  teacher. 
Under  this  method  he  is  a  director  of  their  learning  activities  to  a 
greater  extent  than  when  exercises  are  assigned.  He  may  make  sug- 
gestions and  even  assist  in  the  project,  but  when  any  of  the  planning 
or  the  ensuing  work  is  done  for  the  pupils,  their  opportunity  to  learn 
is  limited  and  their  interest  in  the  project  may  be  lessened. 

A  large  number  of  the  published  descriptions  of  projects  imply 
that  the  teacher26  initiated  the  project  by  asking  the  class,  "Would  you 
like  to  do r"  In  such  cases  the  pupils  may  form  a  domi- 
nating purpose  but  it  not  infrequently  happens  that  the  project  becomes 
merely  an  assignment.  Whenever  a  teacher  approaches  a  class  with  a 
definite  project  in  mind  and  then  endeavors  to  have  his  pupils  purpose 
the  doing  of  it,  his  instructional  procedure  tends  to  become  that  of  the 
assignment  method.  Furthermore,  after  the  pupils  have  formed  a  pur- 
pose, the  teacher  must  permit  them  to  devise  plans  for  its  realization. 
A  teacher  employing  the  project  method  will  seldom  if  ever  be  able  to 
plan  in  advance  the  particular  projects  that  his  class  will  undertake. 
Instead  he  must  utilize  the  purposes  exhibited  by  his  pupils. 


26See  especially  the  descriptions  given  in  the  Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National 
Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I.  Bloomington,  Illinois:  Public  School  Pub- 
lishing Company,  1921. 

NOTE — Because  of  the  fact  that  excellent  bibliographies  concerning  the  project 
method  are  contained  in  most  of  the  references  given  in  this  circular,  especially  in  The 
Twentieth  Yearbook  of  the  National  Society  for  the  Study  of  Education,  Part  I, 
no  bibliography  is  included  in  this  publication. 


[20] 


